The concept of intertextuality, introduced by Julia Kristeva in the late 1960s, has become a significant approach in literary theory. Intertextual analysis is particularly valuable when studying postmodern works, as these often heavily rely on references to other texts. This is true for Salman Rushdie’s Haroun and the Sea of Stories, published in 1990. Intertextuality suggests that all texts are connected and influenced by other texts, and Rushdie’s novel is no exception. Although Haroun and the Sea of Stories is shorter compared to his usual lengthy novels, it is rich in meaning. At first glance, the story may seem simple and intended for children, but it also speaks to adults, reminding them of core human values such as justice and freedom of speech.
The title Haroun and the Sea of Stories itself suggests connections to Arabic literary traditions, particularly One Thousand and One Nights. The protagonist, Haroun, shares his name with the famous caliph Haroun al-Rashid, a celebrated figure whose legacy is glorified in Arabian Nights. The title may also draw from Sanskrit literature, where readers might think of the Kathasaritsagara, a famous collection of stories whose name translates to “the ocean of the streams of story.” This phrase is also referenced later in the novel. By blending these two traditions—Arabic storytelling through One Thousand and One Nights and Sanskrit storytelling through the Kathasaritsagara—Rushdie creates a work that is both intertextual and intercultural. Haroun and the Sea of Stories is more than just a fairytale; it’s a complex mix of various literary techniques. In Sanskrit, the word katha has two meanings: it refers to any story or narrative, and it can also describe a specific type of Sanskrit novel.
In traditional Indian criticism, there is little distinction between tales, fairy tales, fables, etc.; they all fall under the umbrella of katha. Haroun and the Sea of Stories can be seen as both a fairytale and a short postmodern novel. Rushdie also incorporates Arabic traditions, specifically One Thousand and One Nights, as an intertext with references such as the “Arabian nights plus one” houseboat and the “thousand and one islands” in the Land of Gup. The antagonist, Khattam-Shud, tries to poison the Sea of Stories, a magical place where both pure and polluted stories emerge. His motive is revealed: stories are uncontrollable, and he seeks to suppress them. Rushdie uses the Guppies, their king Chattergy, and General Kitab as symbols of creativity and intellectuality, highlighting the power of storytelling and the importance of free expression.
The Guppies in Haroun and the Sea of Stories are lighthearted and talkative, emphasizing the importance of communication and the spoken word. Their soldiers, called “pages,” further highlight the significance of the written word. The king’s name, Chattergy, is a clever wordplay that suggests constant talking or “chattering.” It also alludes to the Bengali surname Chatterjee, which is associated with intellectualism and artistry in Indian culture. General Kitab, whose name means “The Book,” is a powerful symbol of wisdom and literature, representing the value of knowledge and stories. The novel also addresses contemporary issues, such as pollution. In the Sea of Stories, pollution is symbolized by thick, molasses-like water that threatens to suffocate the stories within. This serves as a metaphor for the dangers of environmental destruction and the erosion of cultural narratives, emphasizing how both the natural world and cultural legacies are at risk.
Rushdie also employs another form of intertextuality known as intratextuality, which refers to references to elements within the same story. For instance, the phrase “What’s the use of stories that aren’t true?” is first spoken by Mr. Sengupta, who criticizes Rashid’s life of storytelling. This same phrase is later repeated by Haroun, who, feeling betrayed by his father’s neglect, accuses him of the same. The repetition of this phrase has a direct consequence for Rashid, as it causes him to lose his ability to tell stories. Rushdie’s use of intertextuality is an important part of his writing. He makes deliberate changes to well-known phrases, such as “Water, water everywhere; not a trace of land,” which is inspired by The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Through these references, Rushdie weaves connections to other literary works, enriching his narrative and deepening its layers of meaning.