Chapter 1: The Beginnings of English Literary Study explanation
The classic post-colonial study Masks of Conquest explores how English studies were introduced in India during British rule. Gauri Viswanathan explains that literary texts were used as tools to reflect the ideal Englishman. By teaching English literature, the British aimed to “civilize” Indians, instilling British values and encouraging them to conform to colonial rule.
The introduction of English literature in India began with the Charter Act of 1813. This act renewed the East India Company’s license to operate in India for 20 more years but brought two key changes. First, the British government took responsibility for educating Indians. Second, it relaxed restrictions on missionary work, giving missionaries more freedom. Before this act, efforts to educate Indians were left to the Governor-General in Calcutta, and the East India Company, reluctant to spend money on Indians, handled education. The Charter Act changed this with the 13th Resolution, stating that England had a duty to work for the “interest and happiness” of Indians. The British decision to take responsibility for Indian welfare was influenced by several factors. One was the concern of the British Parliament about the immoral conduct of British officials in India, who led extravagant lives and exploited Indian resources. This behavior raised questions in England about the morality of British rule in India. Henry Montgomery, a member of Parliament, criticized the hypocrisy of trying to civilize Indians while British officials behaved poorly. He argued that Britain needed to reform its own people in India first to set a good example.
Charles Grant, a supporter of missionary work, gave two reasons for British interest in educating Indians. First, he noted that East India Company officials abused their power and gave authority to local leaders. Second, he believed the British had a duty to compensate for the harm caused by their conquest, as they had exploited India heavily. Grant argued that British officials behaved poorly in India initially because they were unsure how long British rule would last. They treated India as a place to exploit rather than improve. However, over time, the British realized they needed to take better care of Indians to continue benefiting from the country. Initially, Grant thought protecting Indian religion would keep Indians happy, but later, he felt introducing Christianity would make governing easier.
For years, the British Parliament clashed with the East India Company, which held exclusive trade rights in India. Other merchants wanted open trade, adding to the tension. The company’s growing power in India also worried Parliament, as it had little control over the company’s political actions. Reports of the company’s unethical behavior eventually gave Parliament a reason to intervene. Under the guise of protecting Indians, Parliament began taking a stronger role in governing India. Warren Hastings, the Governor-General, thought the British didn’t understand Indian culture, which caused problems. He encouraged British officials to learn about Indian traditions, an idea called “reverse acculturation.” Hastings believed this would help the British keep control over India.
When Lord Cornwallis replaced Hastings, he took over a government with financial scandals. Cornwallis blamed these issues on Hastings’ approach of being too friendly to Indian culture. He believed this caused corruption. To fix things, Cornwallis introduced strict English laws and focused on reducing corruption. This started the Anglicism movement, which promoted English values. However, Cornwallis’ decision to exclude Indians from public office hurt relations between the British and Indians. The friendly interactions from Hastings’ time ended, and a strict “master-subject” relationship replaced them. Some leaders opposed Cornwallis’ harsh policies and wanted a kinder way to govern while keeping the ruler-subject dynamic.
Christian missionaries like Zachary Macaulay, William Wilberforce, and Charles Grant believed British rule wasn’t just unless they improved Indian society by spreading Christianity. These missionaries often asked Parliament for permission to work in India, aiming to “enlighten” the people. At first, the government resisted, fearing religious interference might lead to violence. In 1813, the Charter Act allowed missionaries to work in India and provided funding for Indian education, though it didn’t specify what kind of learning to promote. The British faced a challenge: teaching Indian culture exposed Hindu and Muslim beliefs, which clashed with Christian ideals. Teaching science and history without upsetting religious beliefs was also difficult. Some British supported Oriental literature, while others like Thomas Macaulay argued for Western literature and science. James Mill criticized Indian colleges for focusing on religious texts instead of practical subjects. Following Mill’s suggestions, the Committee of General Instruction decided education in India should focus on European knowledge, with Macaulay advocating for the dominance of Western education.
The 1835 English Education Act, introduced under Governor General William Bentinck, prioritized English in Indian education. This decision faced opposition from Orientalists, who argued that removing native literature would strip Indians of their cultural pride. Despite these criticisms, many upper-caste Bengalis were eager to study English. This enthusiasm was reflected in the establishment of Hindu College, which aimed to provide education in both native languages and English literature alongside science. The push for English education was initially supported by figures like Ram Mohan Roy and David Hume. They advocated for translating English works into vernacular languages rather than fully adopting Western ideas. Upper-caste Bengalis showed more interest in learning English compared to Muslims. While English education existed before, the act formalized it and paved the way for English literature to become an academic field in India.
